pr0bLem bAseD LeaRninG

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered instructional strategy in which students collaboratively solve problems and reflect on their experiences. It was pioneered and used extensively at McMaster University in Canada.

PBL is based on the educational theories of Vygotsky, Dewey, and others, and is related to social-cultural and constructivist theories of learning and instructional design.

Characteristics of PBL are:

• Learning is driven by challenging, open-ended, ill-defined and ill-structured problems.
• Students generally work in collaborative groups.
• Teachers take on the role as "facilitators" of learning.

In PBL, students are encouraged to take responsibility for their group and organize and direct the learning process with support from a tutor or instructor. Advocates of PBL claim it can be used to enhance content knowledge and foster the development of communication, problem-solving, and self-directed learning skill.

PBL positions students in simulated real world working and professional contexts which involve policy, process, and ethical problems that will need to be understood and resolved to some outcome. By working through a combination of learning strategies to discover the nature of a problem, understanding the constraints and options to its resolution, defining the input variables, and understanding the viewpoints involved, students learn to negotiate the complex sociological nature of the problem and how competing resolutions may inform decision-making.

Support systems, which include resources germane to the problem domain as well as instructional staff, are provided to scaffold students skills "just in time" and within their learning comfort zone (Vygotsky's Zone of Proximity).

Evidence supporting problem-based learning

Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn cite several studies supporting the success of the constructivist problem-based and inquiry learning methods. For example, they describe a project called GenScope, an inquiry-based science software application. Students using the GenScope software showed significant gains over the control groups, with the largest gains shown in students from basic courses. 

Hmelo-Silver et al. also cite a large study by Geier on the effectiveness of inquiry-based science for middle school students, as demonstrated by their performance on high-stakes standardized tests. The improvement was 14% for the first cohort of students and 13% for the second cohort. This study also found that inquiry-based teaching methods greatly reduced the achievement gap for African-American students. 

A systematic review of the effects of problem-based learning in medical school on the performance of doctors after graduation showed clear positive effects on physician competence. This effect was especially strong for social and cognitive competencies such as coping with uncertainty and communication skills. 

Examples of applying Problem-Based Learning pedagogy to curriculum

 In Malaysia, an attempt is being made to introduce a hybrid of problem-based learning in secondary mathematics called PBL4C, which stands for problem-based learning the four core areas in the mathematics education framework. These core areas are mathematics contents, thinking processes, skills, & values, with the student as the focus of learning. This hybrid first sprouted in SEAMEO RECSAM in 2008. 

At tertiary level, many Malaysian universities are going for PBL purposely to improve the quality of the graduates produced. In collaboration with Aalborg University of Denmark, PBL was introduced at University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM). Since then the PBL was widely used among engineering and as well as humanities lecturers at UTHM (Berhannudin, 2007).

Several medical schools have incorporated problem-based learning into their curricula, using real patient cases to teach students how to think like a clinician. More than eighty percent of medical schools in the United States now have some form of problem-based learning in their programs. Research of 10 years of data from the University of Missouri Medical School PBL curriculum supports PBL. ( Koh GC-H, Khoo HE, Wong ML, Koh D. The Effects of Problem-based learning during medical school on physician competency: a systematic review. CMAJ 2008;178(1):34-41.)

Constructivism and PBL

From a constructivist perspective Problem-based learning (PBL), the role of the instructor is to guide the learning process rather than provide knowledge (Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2006). From this perspective, feedback and reflection on the learning process and group dynamics are essential components of PBL. Students are considered to be active agents who engage in social knowledge construction.

Criticisms of Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning and cognitive load

Sweller and others have published a series of studies over the past twenty years that is relevant to problem-based learning but concerning cognitive load and what they describe as the guidance-fading effect (Sweller, 2006). Sweller, et al. conducted several classroom-based studies with students studying algebra problems (Sweller, 1988). These studies have shown that active problem solving early in the learning process, is a less effective instructional strategy than studying worked examples (Sweller and Cooper, 1985; Cooper and Sweller, 1987). 

Certainly active problem solving is useful as learners become more competent, and better able to deal with their working memory limitations. But early in the learning process, learners may find it difficult to process a large amount of information in a short amount of time. Thus the rigors of active problem solving may become an issue for novices. Once learners gain expertise the scaffolding inherent in problem-based learning helps learners avoid these issues. These studies have however been conducted largely based on individual problem solving of well-defined problems.

Sweller (1988) proposed cognitive load theory to explain how novices react to problem solving during the early stages of learning. Sweller, et al. suggests a worked example early, and then a gradual introduction of problems to be solved. They propose other forms of learning early in the learning process (worked example, goal free problems, etc.); to later be replaced by completions problems, with the eventual goal of solving problems on their own (Sweller, Van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998). This problem based learning becomes very useful later in the learning process.

Many forms of scaffolding have been implemented in problem based learning to reduce the cognitive load of learners. These are most useful to fade guidance during problem solving. As an example, consider the fading effect helps learners to slowly transit from studying examples to solving problems. In this case backwards fading was found to be quite effective.

Cognitive effects of problem-based learning

The acquisition and structuring of knowledge in PBL is thought to work through the following cognitive effects (Schmidt, 1993):

• initial analysis of the problem and activation of prior knowledge through small-group discussion
• elaboration on prior knowledge and active processing of new information
• restructuring of knowledge, construction of a semantic network
• social knowledge construction
• learning in context
• stimulation of curiosity related to presentation of a relevant problem

c0ntRacT aPpr0vaL

 The Contract Approval sample demonstrates how to use workflow to manage the preparation, review and execution of a contract document. It includes the initial preparation of the contract document, editing, legal review and revision, as well as the signing of the final contract.

Using this workflow can help your organization to:

• Streamline  the contract approval process
• Provide flexibility to include other reviewers
• Provide a record of accountability
• Create an audit trail of anyone who made what changes to the contract

The sample also allows you to view the current status of a contract review and capture information such as reminder dates and lead times that can be used to automatically initiate the renewal process.

Contract approval flow

A contract passes through various states from the time it is created until the time is deleted. In most cases, the change of state is triggered by actions you take. Some state changes occur automatically. The approval state is optional.

In the diagram below, the actions that cause the state changes are shown on the lines connecting the contract states. Lines that are not labeled represent state changes that occur automatically. This diagram shows the possible states of one contract.

diSc0vEry LeaRninG

Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction and is considered a constructivist based approach to education. It is supported by the work of learning theorists and psychologists Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner,  and Seymour Papert. Although this form of instruction has great popularity, there is some debate in the literature concerning its efficacy (Mayer, 2004). 

Jerome Bruner is often credited with originating discovery learning in the 1960s, but his ideas are very similar those of earlier writers. Bruner argues that “Practice in discovering for oneself teaches one to acquire information in a way that makes that information more readily viable in problem solving" (Bruner, 1961, p. 26). This philosophy later became the discovery learning movement of the 1960s. The mantra of this philosophical movement suggests that we should 'learn by doing'. In 1991, The Grauer School, a private secondary school in Encinitas, California, was founded with the motto, "Learn by Discovery ," and integrated a series of world-wide expeditions into their program for high school graduation.

Discovery learning takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his own experience and prior knowledge and is a method of instruction through which students interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments.

Discovery learning in special needs education

With the push for special needs students to take part in the general education curriculum, prominent researchers in the field doubt if general education classes rooted in discovery based learning can provide an adequate learning environment for special needs students. Kauffman has related his concerns over the use of discovery based learning as opposed to direct instruction. Kauffman comments,to be highly successful in learning the facts and skills they need, these facts and skills are taught directly rather than indirectly. That is the teacher is in control of instruction, not the student, and information is given to students (2002).

This view is exceptionally strong when focusing on students with math disabilities and math instruction. Fuchs et al. (2008) comment, Typically developing students profit from the general education mathematics program, which relies, at least in part, on a constructivist, inductive instructional style. Students who accrue serious mathematics deficits, however, fail to profit from those programs in a way that produces understanding of the structure, meaning, and operational requirements of mathematics… Effective intervention for students with a math disability requires an explicit, didactic form of instruction… 

Fuchs et al. go on to note that explicit or direct instruction should be followed up with instruction that anticipates misunderstanding and counters it with precise explanations. It must be noted, however, that few studies focus on the long-term results for direct instruction. Long-term studies may find that direct instruction is not superior to other instructional methods. For instance, a study found that in a group of fourth graders that were instructed for 10 weeks and measured for 17 weeks direct instruction did not lead to any stronger results in the long term than did practice alone (Dean & Kuhn, 2006). 


Other researchers note that there is promising work being done in the field to incorporate constructivism and cooperative grouping so that curriculum and pedagogy can meet the needs of diverse learners in an inclusion setting (Brantlinger, 1997). However, it is questionable how successful these developed strategies are for student outcomes both initially and in the long term. 

criticism of pure discovery leatning

A debate in the instructional community now questions the effectiveness of this model of instruction (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006). Bruner (1961) suggested that students are more likely to remember concepts if they discover them on their own. This is as opposed to those they are taught directly. However, Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) report there is little empirical evidence to support discovery learning. Kirschner et al. suggest that fifty years of empirical data does not support those using these unguided methods of instruction.

several groups of educators have found evidence that pure discovery learning is a less effective as an instructional strategy for novices, than more direct forms of instruction (e.g. Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999). Mayer (2004) points out that interest in discovery learning has waxed and waned since the 1960s. He argues that in each case the empirical literature has shown that the use of pure discovery methods is not suggested, yet time and time again researchers have renamed their instructional methods only to be discredited again, to rename their movement again. Mayer asked the question "Should There Be a Three-Strikes Rule Against Pure Discovery Learning?" While discovery for oneself may be an engaging form of learning, it may also be frustrating. 

The main idea behind these critiques is that learners need guidance (Kirschner et al., 2006), but later as they gain confidence and become competent then they may learn through discovery.

from:-

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_learning

eSteTikA muZik

semasa semester 1 aku mengikuti kelas estetika kerana aku merupakan pelajar jurusan seni..

didalam kelas itu aku diajar oleh 2 lecture iaitu prof. Zakaria Ali yang merupakan pelukis terkenal..

seorang lagi ialah en.Azam sulong yang mencipta lirik lagu. beliau merupakan orang negeri aku, org terangganu...

dlm kelas 2 kiteorg diberi 2 pilihan samada  buat assignment yg prof Z atau en.Azam. 

masa nie aku terlampau keliru xtahu nk pilih yg mana 1...

tnye senior dorg cadangkn buat yg en.Azam...

tp aku xpandai pasal muzik2 nie...

pasal seni pn teori je aku boleh tp dorg cakap prof Z teliti orgnya...aku takut aku xleh nk score markah....

fikir pnye fikir pnye fikir last2 aku pilih buat yg en.Azam...

2 pn slpas bincng nge mak ayah aku...dorg kate baik cube buat yg muzik sbb lain kali belum tentu dpt masuk kelas yg ada muzik x ag...betul jgak kate mak ayah aku 2...aku follow..

aku pn g la jupe en.Azam kate nk wat yg dia...dia pn bg la lagu kt aku...

terkejut jgak aku mula2 tgok2 lagu Isabella, Search yg nyanyi..

selepas 2 aku pn wat la analisis lagu 2 berdasarkn panduan yg en.Azam bg..

nie la akhirnya....

Tajuk  lagu : Isabella

Pencipta lagu : Search

Penulis lirik : Bob

Penyanyi : Search

Juara lagu TV3 tahun 1989

Lagu pilihan popular 90-an MACP

Isabella adalah kisah cinta dua dunia
Mengapa kita berjumpa
Namun akhirnya terpisah
Siang jadi hilang
Ditelan kegelapan malam

Alam yang terpisah
Melenyapkan sebuah kisah...
Terbayang lambaianmu
Salju terbakar kehangatan
Dunia di penuhi
Warna berseri bunga cinta

Kita yang terlena
Hingga musim berubah
Mentari menyepi
Bernyalalah api cinta

Dia Isabella
Lambang cinta yang lara
Terpisah kerana adat yang berbeza
Cinta gugur bersama
Daun daun kekeringan...

Haluan hidupku
Terpisah dengan Isabella
Tapi aku terpaksa
Demi cintaku Isabella

Moga dibukakan
Pintu hatimu untukku
Akan terbentang jalan
Andainya kau setia
Oh! Isabella....

STRUKTUR KARYA

Jenis

Jenis penulisan lirik lagu Isabella ini ialah balada. Balada bermaksud puisi yang memberi penekanan kepada pernyataan perasaan, terutama perasaan sedih dan biasanya berhubung dengan peristiwa yang dialami oleh penyair. Biasanya balada adalah cerita yang diolah atau disusun dalam bentuk puisi sehingga perasaan yang dialami oleh penyair dapat dirasai dan digambarkan oleh pembaca. Dengan ini akan timbul kesan simpati ketika membacanya dan mendengarnya.

Tema

Tema bagi lirik lagu Isabella ialah percintaan yang terhalang oleh adat yang berbeza, dan juga perlunya kesetiaan dalam sesebuah percintaan. Walaupun cinta itu terhalang, jika ada kesetiaan hubungan itu dapat dikekalkan.

Persoalan pokok

Persoalan pokok ialah perkara-perkara pokok yang menjadi persoalan utama yang dibincangkan dalam sesebuah lirik lagu yang ingin disampaikan oleh penyair tersebut. Persoalan yang dapat saya timbulkan dalam penelitian lirik lagu Isabella ini ialah :

1.  ~Setiap manusia akan diuji, tidak kira dalam ape jua keadaan.

2. ~Kebanyakan hubungan percintaan akan terhalang oleh perbezaan taraf kehidupan pasangan tersebut.

3.~Kesetiaan dan kejujuran serta ketabahan dalam sesuatu hubungan adalah sangat penting bagi mengekalkan hubungan tersebut walaupun dilanda pelbagai masalah.

Nilai

Nilai yang terdapat dalam lirik tersebut ialah :

1.      Kasih sayang

2.      Ketabahan

3.      Kesetiaan

4.      Keasyikan

5.      Pengorbanan

Bentuk

Seni kata lagu ini berbentuk bebas. Penulis lirik lagu ini iaitu Bob, menulis lirik lagu Isabella ini dengan 6 rangkap yang mempunyai jumlah baris yang tidak sama. Rangkap pertama memepunyai 5 baris, rangkap kedua pula mempunyai 6 baris, manakala rangkap ketiga mempunyai 4 baris. Seterusnya, rangkap keempat mempunyai 5 baris dan sama dengan rangkap terakhir iaitu rangkap keenam. Rangkap kelima pula mempunyai 4 baris. Keseluruhannya, lagu ini mempunyai 6 rangkap.

Rima dalam setiap rangkap

Rima adalah persamaan bunyi akhir kata. Rima pada lirik lagu Isabella ini dikategorikan seperti berikut :

·         Rangkap 1 = aabcd

·         Rangkap 2 = aabcde

·         Rangkap 3 = abca

·         Rangkap 4 = aaaab

·         Rangkap 5 = abbb

·         Rangkap 6 = aback

VARIASI  BAHASA

Konsep bahasa

Bahasa yang sering dikaitkan dengan kajian karya kreatif komsas, khususnya karya prosa moden ialah diksi dan dari aspek- aspek gaya bahasa

Diksi

Diksi ialah pemilihan, penyusunan, dan penggunaan kata-kata khusus yang puitis dalam percakapan atau penulisan. Diksi dalam kesasteraan melayu mengandungi kata-kata yang memiliki makna denotasi dan makna konotasi. Denotasi ialah pemberian makna yang tepat tanpa ada maksud lain. Manakala, konotasi pula merupakan ungkapan yang menghasilkan makna tambahan atau pengertian lain daripada makna biasa.

Denotasi

Penggunaan pendekatan denotasi dalam lagu ini dapat diperhatikan pada ayat berikut iaitu

~ Isabella adalah kisah cinta dua dunia

   Mengapa kita berjumpa

   Namun akhirnya terpisah

   Siang jadi hilang

   Ditelan kegelapan malam

Konotasi

Penggunaan pendekatan bahasa konotasi didalam lagu ini dapat diperhatikan pada ayat berikut :

~ Alam yang terpisah

   Melenyapkan sebuah kisah…

   Terbayang lambaianmu

   Salju terbakar kehangatan

   Dunia di penuhi

   Warna berseri bunga cinta

~ Kita yang terlena

   Hingga musim berubah

   Mentari menyepi

   Bernyalalah api cinta

Gaya bahasa

Gaya bahasa ialah cara atau ragam yang digunakan dalam penulisan atau lisan ataupun cara pemakaian bahasa dalam sesebuah karya atau susunan kata.

·         Gaya bahasa terbahagi kepada lima jenis iaitu :

a)      Gaya bahasa pengulangan – aliterasi, anadiplosis, anaphora, asindeton, asonansi, epifora, gradasi, rima, simplok, tautotes, dan banyak lagi.

b)     Gaya bahasa penyindiran – aferesis, afesis, akronim, apokop, sinkof, dan sebagainya.

c)      Gaya bahasa perbandingan – imejan, metafora, personafikasi, peonasme, simile, antisipasi, prolepsis, alegori, dan banyak lagi.

d)     Gaya bahasa pertautan – alusi, antonomasia, epitet, sinekdok, dan banyak lagi.

e)      Gaya bahasa pertentangan – hiperbola, inverse, paradox, ironi, dan banyak lagi.

Aliterasi

Aliterasi merupakan sejenis gaya bahasa pengulangan bunyi konsonan yang sama pada awal kata dan yang bertuturan sama ada dalam puisi tradisional, puisi moden, prosa tradisional, prosa moden, prosa moden sama ada kreatif atau bukan kreatif. Disini, saya cuba kupaskan berkenaan penggunaan alterasi yang terdapat pada  setiap rangkap lagu Isabella.

~ Isabella adalah kisah cinta dua dunia
    Mengapa kita berjumpa
    Namun akhirnya terpisah
    Siang jadi hilang
    Ditelan kegelapan malam

·         Perhatikan pengulangan konsonan ‘n’ pada rangkap pertama lagu ini.

~ Alam yang terpisah

   Melenyapkan sebuah kisah...

   Terbayang lambaianmu

   Salju terbakar kehangatan

   Dunia di penuhi

   Warna berseri bunga cinta

• Perhatikan pengulangan konsonan ‘m’ pada rangkap kedua ini.

Asonanasi

Asonansi merupakan sejenis gaya bahasa pengulangan bunyi vocal yang sama pada setiap baris atau pada setiap ayat. Dalam lirik lagu Isabella dapat saya kupaskan penggunaan gaya bahasa ini seperti :

• Pengulangan vokal ‘i’

Isabella adalah kisah cinta dua dunia

Mengapa kita berjumpa

Namun akhirnya terpisah

Siang jadi hilang

Ditelan kegelapan malam

• Pengulangan vokal ‘a’

Alam yang terpisah

Melenyapkan sebuah kisah…

Terbayang lambaianmu

Salju terbakar kehangatan

Dunia di penuhi

Warna berseri bunga cinta

• Pengulangan vokal ‘u’

Haluan hidupku

Terpisah dengan Isabella

Tapi aku terpaksa

Demi cintaku Isabella 

Sinkof

Sinkof ialahsejenis gaya bahasa penyirnaan, iaitu pengguguran huruf atau sukukata sisip perkataan atau dengan manghilangkan huruf tengah atau sukukata tengah. Antara sinkof yang terdapat dalam lirik lagu Isabella ialah :

~ Alam yang terpisah

   Melenyapkan sebuah kisah…

   Terbayang lambaianmu (sepatutnya “lambaian kamu”)

   Salju terbakar kehangatan

   Dunia di penuhi

   Warna berseri bunga cinta

   Haluan hidupku  (sepatutnya hidup “aku”)

   Terpisah dengan Isabella

   Tapi aku terpaksa

   Demi cintaku Isabella (sepatutnya “cinta aku”)

   Moga dibukakan (sepatutnya “semoga”)

   Pintu hatimu untukku ( sepatutnya “hati kamu” dan “untuk aku”)

   Akan terbentang jalan

   Andainya kau setia (sepatutnya “engkau”)

Hiperbola

Hiperbola merupakan sejenis gaya bahasa yang mengandungi kenyataan tentang sesuatu perkara yang secara berlebih-lebihan melampau.

Contoh yang terdapat dalam lirik lagu Isabella ini ialah:

~ Isabella adalah kisah cinta dua dunia

   Mengapa kita berjumpa

   Namun akhirnya terpisah

   Siang jadi hilang

   Ditelan kegelapan malam

~ Kita yang terlena

   Hingga musim berubah

   Mentari menyepi

   Bernyalalah api cinta

nie la sedikit sebanyak analisis lagu yg aku dpt kongsikn...

jika salah tolang tegurkn...